Is Use Of Language Restricted To Humans English Language Essay

Is Use Of Language Restricted To Humans English Language Essay Chomsky (1968) claimed that language in specific to humans as only humans possess a language acquisition device to acquire language the universal grammar. It is a hard matter to define what language really is. According to the layman definition by Cambridge University Press (2008), language is a system of communication that consists of sounds, words and grammar. In the past literature, there have been claims that non-human primates like chimpanzees and bonobos are capable of comprehending human language (Benson et al., 2002; Brakke and Savagerumbaugh, 1995). However it is doubtful whether comprehension constitutes a comprehensive use of language. In this essay, we would discuss whether non-human animals are capable of commanding the comprehensive use of language by critically evaluating whether they show some of the design-features of human spoken language in their speech documented in Hockett (1960) and whether they are able to acquire syntax and morphology (Laidrem, 2008). The first design-feature is the vocal-auditory channel, where communication occurs whenever the producer speaks and the receiver hears (Harley, 2001). There are communication systems using other channels, for instance gestures, bee dancing (De Marco, Gurevitz and Menzel, 2008) or the courtship ritual of sticklebacks. Having a vocal-auditory channel enables primates to free up much of their bodies to carry out activities other than communicating language simultaneously. Primate calls and the singing of a western meadowlark possess this design-feature. The second one is arbitrariness, where abstract symbols do not necessarily resemble what they stand for, for instance salt may neither mean salty nor granular (Hockett, 1960; Harley, 2001), except a few onomatopoeic exceptions. It has a shortcoming of being arbitrary, but advantageous in the way that what can be communicated about is limitless. In a semantic communicative system, ties between meaningful message-elements and their meanings can either be arbitrary or non-arbitrary (e.g. salt would mean salt instead of sugar or pepper) there are relatively fixed associations between elements in messages, like words, and recurrent features of our world. The western meadowlark song holds semantic arbitrariness whereas gibbon calls hold a general arbitrariness design-feature. The third one is discreteness, where vocabulary comprises of discrete units and contrasts with the use of sound effects by the vocal gestural way (Harley, 2001). Human vocal organs produce an array of sounds, but in all languages only a relatively small set of ranges of sound is sound, and differences between these ranges are functionally absolute, e.g. pin and bin are different to the ear only at one point. The hearer can either compensate based on context, or fails to understand. However, in some systems there may be effectively continuous scale of degrees to which one may raise his voice as in anger or lower it to signal confidentiality bee-dancing is continuous rather than discrete. Grylliade (e.g. crickets) and tettigoniidae (e.g. bush-crickets) and primate calls carry discreteness. There are a dozen or so distinct gibbon calls, each appropriate vocal response, or vocal part of the whole response, to a recurrent and biologically important type of situation, for instance discove ry of food, detection of predator, etc. The fourth one displacement design-feature is very evident in humans, where we are able to talk about things remote spatially and temporally from where the conversation begins. It seems lacking in vocal signaling of primates, however it does occur in bee-dancing bee dances convey information about how far the food source is (De Marco, Gurevitz and Menzel, 2008). A parrot is unable to demonstrate displacement (Pepperberg, 1987). Monkeys are also limited to chattering and squeaking about immediate threats like snakes in the grass and eagles overhead (Muncer, Malone and Ettlinger, 1982), therefore they also fail the displacement criterion. Concerning traditional transmission design-feature, it refers to the fact language can be taught and learned. In humans, imitation and teaching occur together smoothly. A chimpanzee mother could not teach her infant anything because, although the infant watches her problem-solving skills intentionally, she never returns the infants observation. Similarly, if a vervet monkey gives a leopard call and its recipient, say its offspring, takes countermeasures for python, there is no evidence that monkeys correct errant listeners or that their communication is intentional (Premark, 2004). It was noted that Washoe, another chimpanzee, adopted a younger chimpanzee Loulis as his son. He spontaneously acquired signs from Washoe and was also seen to be taught by Washoe. Although this is a clear indication of what is known as cultural transmission, it is unclear whether it is a language that has been transmitted, or just a sophisticated communication system (Premark, 2004). At first sight Washoe appears to have acquired the use of words and their meanings, and at least some rudimentary syntax-that is, being sensitive to word order in both production and comprehension. However, Washoe did not show learning of functional words like prepositions and inflections, neither was he able to differentiate between different parts of speech like conjunctions, nouns and verbs. Productivity is one of the most important design-features of human spoken language, which refers to the capacity to say things that have never been said or heard before and yet to be understood by other speakers of the same language (Hockett, 1960). One would be able to coin new utterances by incorporating pieces familiar from old utterances and assembling them by patterns of arrangement also familiar in old utterances. In human speech where blending exists, a speaker would hesitate between two words or phrases, both reasonably appropriate to context, a combination of parts of each. It is also involved in slips of tongue which would assist infants in switching from a closed to an open system productivity also known as openness, the ability to invent new messages, where syntax, the grammatical arrangement of sentences, plays an enormous rule (Shostak, 2009). It can be demonstrated using syntax, where in humans, there is a finite number of grammatical rules and a finite number of word s, but humans are able to combine them to produce an infinite number of sentences once they associate the words with particular meanings or concepts, and put them into different orders (Chomsky, 1957; Marshall, 1970). Primate calls constitute a small finite repertory of familiar calls, therefore they are considered having a closed call system and do not demonstrate productivity. According to Hockett (1960), bee dancing shows productivity. However, this is questionable as types of dancing bees do may barely be repertoires. There is a belief that whales and dolphins possess language. However, there is no current evidence suggesting that dolphins employ sequences of sub-units conveying particular messages, which is in the same way we combine words to form sentences to convey messages (Pearce, 2008). In early research by Evans and Bastian (1969), dolphins carried on making sounds even when other dolphins were absent, where communication with each other in carrying out cooperative tasks to obtain fish seems to be explicable by conditioning (Holder, Herman and Kuczaj, 1989). There is no evidence that dolphins can produce even the simplest sentence in language (Pearce, 2008). By now, there is no animal communication system that can satisfy the four properties of syntax identified by Kako (1999) and iteration and recursion properties of language (Hauser et al., 2002). Herman, Richards, and Wolz (1984) taught two bottle-nosed dolphins, Phoenix and Akeakamai, artificial languages. One artificial language was visually based using gestures of the trainers arms and legs, and the other was acoustically based using computer-generated sounds transmitted through underwater speakers. However, this research tested only the animals comprehension of the artificial language, not their ability to produce it. From the point of view of answering our questions on language and animals, it is clearly important to examine both comprehension and production. Even just testing their comprehension, the dolphins syntactic ability was limited, and they showed no evidence of being able to use function words (Kako, 1999). Although others have claimed that chimpanzees could comprehend spoken English, they have failed to present adequate data to substantiate such assertions (Pearce, 2008). In repeated tests since 1977, Sherman and Austin, two chimpanzees, consistently failed comprehension tests of spoken English though they have constantly been exposed to it from infancy. Kanzi, however, was displaying a remarkable comprehension of spoken English, where Kanzi was not being reinforced nor trained to do the experimental task (E. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, et al., 1985). Kanzi is a pygmy chimpanzee, and it is claimed he has made a vital step in spontaneously acquiring the understanding that symbols refer to things in the world. He first acquired symbols by observing the training of his mother on lexigrams devices that produce word sounds when pressed. He was sensitive to word order, and understood verb meanings- he could distinguish between get the rock and take the rock, and between put the hat on your ball and put the ball on your hat. He also formed spontaneous utterances. Petitto (1987, cited in Pearce, 2008) argued that Kanzis understanding of names is not like that of humans. Kako (1999) argued that Kanzi shows no signs of possessing any function words, nor any indication of being able to use morphology: he does not modify his language according to number, as we do when we form plurals. Pepperberg (1987) embarked on an elaborate formal programme of training of her African grey parrot called Alex. After 13 years of training, Alex developed a vocabulary of 80 words including object names, adjectives, and verbs. He could even produce and understand short sequences of words understand concepts of same and different. Alex showed evidence of being able to combine discrete categories and use syntactic categories appropriately, but was unable to relate objects to verbs, and knew very few function words (Kako, 1999). Therefore, Alex had limited linguistic abilities. The last design-feature to be mentioned, the duality of patterning, means that only combinations of meaningless units are meaningful, and this is applicable to both the sound and word level, and word and sentence level (Hockett, 1960). It provides much efficiency and flexibility to human language. When a vocal-auditory system carries a larger and larger number of distinct meaningful elements, they become more similar to one another in sound, where there is a limit for any species to how many distinct stimuli they are capable of distinguishing between, in particular they have to be made under noisy conditions. This design-feature is illustrated by English words tack, cat and act, which are composed of only three basic meaningless sounds in different permutations, yet totally distinct in meaning. Very few animal communicative systems share this design-feature of language none among other hominoids (e.g. apes, monkeys), or maybe humans are the only one (Harley, 2001). To conclude, none of the animals mentioned seemed to be capable of possessing the above mentioned design-features of human spoken language (Hockett, 1960). They were also unable to command the complicated syntax and lexical competences that humans possess. This may be due to humans having large and convoluted brains acting as better storage units for conventions of a complex communicative system as language (Pinker, 1994). Though many animals possess rich symbolic communication systems enabling them to convey messages to other members of the species which would influence behaviour and possess many of Hocketts (1960) design features, they all lack the richness of human language, which is manifested in our ability to limitlessly talk about anything and using syntax. The failure to teach apes to speak is partly due to the fact that their vocal tracts are incapable of producing all sounds of human speech, where according to Duchin (1990, cited in Pearce, 2008), a major constraint on the ability of the chimp to produce sounds of human speech is its tongue which is unable to move to correct positions for creating sounds that are necessary. It is possible that by reducing methodological flaws in language learning paradigms and more investigations of different animals, we would be more informed about whether animals are able to use language comprehensively in the humans do.

Sample questions and Exam

Sample questions Note: The purpose for providing sample questions is to show the format of questions that will be given in the midterm exam. The midterm exam will have more of both true false questions and short answer problems than those presented here. For more short answer problem types please look at the exercises sets. True-false questions: T Consider the two statements: I. X is an inferior good. II. X exhibits Giffen’s Paradox. The following is true: II implies I, but I does not necessarily imply II. F T F Suppose that at current consumption levels an individual’s marginal utility of consuming an extra hot dog is 10 whereas the marginal utility of consuming an extra soft drink is 2. Then the MRS (of soft drinks for hot dogs)—that is, the number of hot dogs the individual is willing to give up to get one more soft drink is 1/5. If the price of X falls, the budget constraint shifts inward in a parallel fashion. T F T F Suppose a cup of coffee at the campus coffee shop is $2. 50 and a cup of hot tea is $1. 25. Suppose a student’s beverage budget is $20 per week. The algebraic expression represents the budget constraint. Suppose a cup of coffee at the campus coffee shop is $2. 50 and a cup of hot tea is $1. 25. Suppose a student’s beverage budget is $20 per week. Suppose the student simply prefers more caffeine to less and that the tea sold has exactly one-third the caffeine as the coffee. The student will buy a mix of coffee and tea. T F (The student will buy only coffee) T F In economic theory, the demand for a good must depend only on income and its own price and not on the prices of other goods. T F If two goods are substitutes, then an increase in the price of one of them will increase the demand for the other. 1 T F If consumers spend all of their income, it is impossible for all goods to be inferior goods. A good is a luxury good if the income elasticity of demand for it is greater than 1. A rational consumer spends her entire income. If her income doubles and prices do not change, then she will necessarily choose to consume twice as much of every good as she did before. A consumer has the utility function U(x; y) = min(x,2y) If the price of good x is zero and the price of good y is p; then the consumer's demand function for good y is m/2p. Suppose a teenager likes both rap music (R) and country music (C) with a set of preferences so that U = C1/2R1/2. Point (C, R)=(100, 1) makes the teen the happier than point (C, R)=(25, 25). If a person’s indifference curves can be represented as a straight line, the person views the goods as complements (but not perfect). T T F F T F T F T F Short answer problems 1. Walt consumes strawberries and cream but only in the fixed ratio of three boxes of strawberries to two cartons of cream. At any other ratio, the excess goods are totally useless to him. The cost of a box of strawberries is 10 and the cost of a carton of cream is 10. Walt's income is 200. How many boxes of strawberries does Walt demand? Ans: Walt demands 12 boxes of strawberries. (NOTE that the utility function is U=min{2x,3y}) 2. Fanny consumes only grapefruits and grapes. Her utility function is U(x; y) = x3y6; where x is the number of grapefruits consumed and y is the number of grapes consumed. Fanny's income is 48, and the prices of grapefruits and grapes are 1 and 3, respectively. How many grapefruits will she consume? Ans: 16 3. Katie Kwasi's utility function is U(x1; x2) = 2(ln x1)+ x2. Given her current income and the current relative prices, she consumes 5 units of x1 and 20 units of x2. If her income 2 doubles, while prices stay constant, how many units of x1 will she consume after the change in income? Ans: 5 3. Suppose a new healthcare initiative for the working poor will be paid for with a reduction to the earned income tax credit. Suppose the average working poor family has income of $12,000 from work and an additional $4000 from the EITC. If there are two goods, H (healthcare) and C (all other consumption), what will be the equation for a budget line with the EITC? (Let prices of all goods and healthcare be normalized to 1). Ans: C = $16,000 – H 4. Suppose a teenager has $20 and likes both rap music (R) and country music (C) with a set of preferences so that U = C1/2R1/2. Suppose that the iTunes price of a rap music song is and the price of a country music song is . What is the greatest level of affordable utility? Ans: v50 3

Me seek death

Triangle Skills to Solve Problems For each word problem below, you must draw a picture and show your work towards a solution. Solutions are given for each problem. Since these are real-life type problems, answers should be decimal approximations as opposed to being in simplest radical form. You are allowed to use anything you know about triangle similarity, right triangles and right triangle trigonometry. This assignment is a learning target and is required to pass this semester.P = Do these problems if you want a Proficient score for this learning target HP = Do Hess problems if you want a Highly Proficient score for this learning target A = All students are required to do these problems P 1) A soccer ball Is placed 10 feet away from the goal, which Is 8 feet high. You kick the ball and it hits the crossbar along the top of the goal. What is the angle of elevation of your kick? (38. 70) P 2) If a person 5 Ft 10 inches tall casts a 7 Ft. 4 inch shadow, how tall is a person who casts a shadow 6 Ft. 8 inches long? Put answer in feet and 4 inches) P 3) Michelle delivers books to school libraries. Her truck has a slide out ramp for unloading the books. The top of the ramp Is 3 feet above the ground. The ramp itself Is 5. 2 feet long. What is the horizontal distance the ramp reaches? Also, what Is the angle of elevation of the ramp? (4. 25 Ft. ; 35. 20) A 4) An airplane is at an elevation of 35,000 Ft. When it begins its approach to an airport. Its angle of descent is 60. What is the horizontal distance between the plane and the airport? Also, what is the approximate air distance from the plane to the airport? 63 miles; 63. 4 miles) P 5) Pete has a 15-foot ladder. The safety instructions recommend he should have he base of the ladder 6 feet from the base of the wall he will lean the ladder against. How high will the ladder reach on the wall? (13. 75 feet) A 6) A lighthouse keeper observes that there Is a 30 angle of depression between the horizontal and the line of sight to a ship. If the keeper Is 19 meters above the water, how far Is the ship from shore? (362. 5 meters) opposite bank. (90 meters) HP 8) Mart is standing 4 Ft. Behind a fence 6 Ft. 6 inches tall.When she looks over the fence, she can Just see the top edge off building. She knows that the building is 32 Ft. Inches behind the fence. Her eyes are 5 Ft. From the ground. How tall is the building? Give your answer to the nearest half-foot. (See diagram below) (18. 7 feet) A 9) A 25-foot ladder is placed against a building. The bottom of the ladder is 7 feet from the building. If the top of the ladder slips down 4 feet, how many feet will the bottom slide out? (slipped 8 feet) A 10) Driving through the mountains, Dale has to go up and over a high mountain pass.The road has a constant incline for 7 miles to the top of the pass. Dale notices from a road sign that in the first mile he climbs 840 feet. What is the height of the mountain pass? (5280 feet = 1 mile). Also, how steep is the i ncline in degrees? (Answer in feet) (6510 Ft. ; 9. 20) HP 11) You want to hang banner that is 29 Ft. Tall. You are thinking of hanging it outside from the third floor of your school, but need to measure to see if it will fit there. The trouble with measuring the direct distance is that there is a large 6 Ft. Tall bush in the way at the base of the school building.You throw a 38 Ft. Long rope out the window to a friend on the ground. She walks away from the building until the pop is taught. Upon measuring, she finds the angle of elevation of the rope to be 700. Will the banner fit on the wall and be completely above the bush? How much space will there be between the top of the bush and the bottom of the banner? (Banner will fit with . 7 off foot to spare) HP 12) Chris is mailing his friend a poster that has been rolled up in a long tube. He has a box that measures 20 inches by 8 inches by 4 inches. What is the maximum length the rolled poster can be? Where you label the dimensions on your drawing on the box won't affect your answer) (21. 7 inches) HP 13) Elena is standing on a plateau that is 800 Ft. Above a basin where she can see two hikers. The angle of depression from her line of sight to the first hiker is 250 and to the second hiker is 150. How far apart are the two hikers? (1270 feet) HP 14) The front and back walls of an A-frame cabin are isosceles triangles, each with a base 10 m and sides of 13 m. The entire front wall is made of glass that cost $120/mm. What did the glass for the front wall cost? $7200) angle of elevation of the sun was 550, the length of the shadow cast by this flagpole as 210 Ft. Find the height of the flagpole to the nearest foot. Also, what was the length of the shadow when the angle of elevation of the sun was 340? (300 feet; 444. 8 feet) A 16) International rules of basketball state the rim should be 3. 05 meters above the ground. If your line of sight to the rim is 340 and you are 1. 7 meters tall, what is the horizontal dista nce from you to the rim? (2 meters) P 17) Eagleburger is 17 miles south of Linebacker, and Linebacker is 5 miles west of Pueblo.Carson lives nine miles north of Linebacker. How many miles will Carson eave to drive altogether from his home to Eagleburger if he stops in Pueblo on the way? (Make sure he goes the shortest distances possible) (28 miles) P 18) A student looks out of a second-story school window and sees the top of the school flagpole at an angle of elevation of 220. The student is 18 Ft. Above the ground and 50 Ft. From the flagpole. Find the height of the flagpole. (38. 2 Ft. ) HP 19) You need to add 5 supports under the ramp, in addition to the 3. 6 meter one so that they are all equally spaced. You should have six supports in all.How long should each support be? Also, what is the angle of descent of the ramp? (220) A 20) A 17-foot wire connects the top of a 28-foot pole to the top of a pole. What is the shortest length of wire that you could use to attach the top of th e short pole to the bottom of the tall pole? (25 feet) A 21) Juanita, who is 1. 82 meters tall, wants to find the height off tree in her backyard. From the tree's base, she walks 12. 20 meters along the tree's shadow to a position where the end of her shadow exactly overlaps the end of the tree's shadow. She is now 6. 1 meters from the end of the shadows.How tall is the tree? 5. 46 meters) HP 22) A giant California redwood tree 36 meters tall cracked in a violent storm and fell as if hinged. The tip of the tree hit the ground 24 meters from the base. Researchers wished to investigate the crack. How many meters up from the base of the tree would they have to climb? (10 feet) HP 23) George is looking out from a window 30 feet above the street. The angle of elevation is 500 to the top off building across the street. The angle of depression to the base of the same building is 200. Find the height of the building across the street. (128. 2 Ft)

Mathematics A Key Element For A Young Child s Learning...

Literature is a key element for a young child’s learning process. It can be essential in elementary students understanding of mathematics topics. Language arts, social studies, and science instruction commonly uses literature. At times it can be overlooked when teaching or planning lessons for mathematics. Mathematics instruction tends to have a high emphasis on using manipulatives or workbooks. Literature does not tend to be at the top of the resource list (Golden, 2012). While books can be a very useful tool for teachers successfulness in teaching mathematics topics. You can find mathematics in different types of books. For example: recipe, sequential thinking, patterns, and problem solving books (Padula, 2004). Math skills and mathematics literature are both equally important in children’s growth in this subject (Kurz, 2012). These components must be combined for children to effectively learn each math skill (Kurz, 2012). According to the article, â€Å"The Role of Mathematical Fiction in the Learning of Mathematics in Primary School† this series is great for filling in a few minutes between transitions (Padula, 2004). Also, at the end of the picture books they include extensions or activities for the class to complete. This study will more closely see if third graders mathematics scores and achievement increase when consistently incorporating literature into plans and lessons. Purpose of the Study Gathering information associated with children’s mathematicsShow MoreRelatedRationale Of Curriculum Integration And Differentiation1705 Words   |  7 Pagesbetween core learning areas such as literacy, numeracy or science, create deeper connected understandings when delivered through an integrated curriculum rather than taught in isolation. 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As part of this discussion critically consider the relationship between learning approaches within the core subjects and individual learning needs in these subjects for children. Elizabeth Mc Grath Contents Page Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 3 Main Content †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ English †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Read MoreThe Arts And How It Is Beneficial1624 Words   |  7 Pagesapplying and learning skills, for maintaining positive mental health, and for building self-esteem. 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